There have been a number of theories in modern times framing Yule as a solar celebration welcoming the returning sun, and while this was likely at least one aspect of it these theories cannot be confirmed as complete fact based on what sources remain or given the festival's original dating well after the actual solstice. It does appear, though, to have been a time of great feasting and drinking, during which wealthier people (jarls and kings, particularly) would host large community feasts for their families; friends and subjects. Gift giving is mentioned in Fóstrbræðra Saga, although the gift cycle was a major element of Old Norse culture and was pretty much a given at most major festivals and celebrations. It could be said that Christmas, as commercialized as it has become, preserves the widespread human tradition of gifting and reciprocity that strengthens relationships.
Along with Óðinn, Freyr likely received offerings during this time as suggested by the practice of a boar sacrifice at Yule, the boar being an animal sacred to him. Hervarar Saga ok Heiðreks and Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar both mention this practice, known as sónarblót, where the best boar of the herd is sacrificed. In Hervarar Saga ok Heiðreks, the practice is also carried out by Heiðrekr who notably worships Freyr.
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Yule was a time of peace, and this concept is attested in saga literature as well as in the term "jólafriðr" (Yule peace) found in A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic. Additionally, in Svarfdæla Saga a berserker postpones a duel until after Yule.
Of course, while merriment was widespread at this time of year, there was also danger lurking in the cold dark of night. This time of the year was seen to give rise to an increase in spiritual activity. Trolls, draugr and other harmful beings were seen to wander free more often during Yule, so it was not a good idea to be far out at night. While people would venture outdoors during the day and a little bit at night, they primarily stayed inside with company where it was considered to be safer. In Eyrbyggja Saga, a farm at Fróða is cursed as people keep dying when they see the ghosts of various people who have died there, consequently adding to the ghostly retinue. One year at Yule, the farm is overtaken by these spirits and the living inhabitants hide in a room while the spirits occupy the house and continue killing people. In Grettis Saga, during Yule Grettir gets into a fight with a troll woman after wrestling with a draugr.
One piece of later Norwegian folklore, called Oskoreia (Ásgárðs riders) is the ride of the immortal souls of the dead through the night sky during winter. Another name for these riders is Jólareia (Yule riders), suggesting that this event would occur during Yuletide. Though this lore is post conversion (as evidenced by the riders being fended off by a man holding a cross out toward them), it's firmly rooted in Old Norse legend of Yuletide monsters and may be a carryover of the cautionary tales of the dead and otherworldly beings during this time. Óðinn is in some cases the leader of this host, adding to his Yuletide associations, but there are a number of figures between whom this role alternates.
Somewhat in contrast, the nisse, also known as tomte in Sweden, is particularly recognized at this time of the year as well. Described as a very short, elderly looking, bearded man, much like the popular depiction of a gnome, the nisse was originally known to be the spirit of the first inhabitant of the land, and protected later families who inhabited the land from misfortune. Later on, in the 1800’s, the nisse came to be known as the bearer of gifts to families at yuletide. He has been commercialized to be more like the American version of Santa Claus, but even then his appearance has retained elements of its Scandinavian roots.
When did it occur?
The timeline of Yule has some variation depending on the tradition, but in modern times it often lasts for about twelve nights starting on the winter solstice. Some assert that this is the origin of the Twelve Days of Christmas, though this is likely due more to the fact that there are twelve days from Christmas on Dec 25 to Epiphany on Jan 6 on the Christian liturgical calendar. Another theory is that there could have been a 12 day-long liminal period where if the full moon of Jólmánuðr occurred within it a leap month would be inserted during the following summer.
According to Hákonar Saga Góða, the original Yule observations at least in Norway actually occurred over three nights at Hǫkunótt in mid-January before being moved into December by King Hákon to be closer to Christmas. Hǫkunótt, which can mean "Hook Night" or "Chin Night" is generally linked to Midwinter, and Geir T Zoëga in his book A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic simply defines Hǫkunótt as "Midwinter Night". Ólafs Saga Helga echoes this somewhat when King Ólafr becomes angry upon hearing that people are holding a Midwinter blót (Miðsvetrarblót). The local magnate stalls him by telling him that they are actually holding a Yule feast (Jólaveizla). This suggests that the two events would generally overlap while interestingly implying that, at least with the coming of Christianity, Yule observances may have become secularized and distinct from Midwinter traditions.
The biggest issue with these later saga records, the two referenced above both being from the 1200s, is that we cannot be certain just how reliable they are, at least individually. In addition to these, however, in the early 11th century Thietmar of Merseburg described a major series of sacrifices taking place at Lejre in Denmark, which according to him took place after the Feast of the Epiphany, that being on January 6th. While it's not specifically referred to as Jólablót, the timing of it suggests that it is a solid possibility. This record from the nominal Viking Period along with the two later saga entries all seeming to agree on this point add a degree of reliability when it comes to the relative timing of the major Jól observances.
Andreas Nordberg further explains that in the Old Norse lunisolar calendar system, Jól would be celebrated during the full moon following the first new moon after the winter solstice. Because the beginnings of winter and summer similarly occur at the heights of post-equinox lunar periods, this also puts the peak of Yule at Midwinter. The solstice was then important for calculating Yule dates, and may have had some festivities around it, but does not appear to have been the major focus.
Additionally, there are primstavs which show the date of Midwinter or Hǫkunótt being on January 12 or 14, and this likely occurred as the lunisolar calendar was abandoned for the solar Julian calendar. With the adoption of the Julian calendar, dates generally became standardized. Winter began on October 14, summer began on April 14 and at the halfway point, the middle of January, would be Midwinter. Because of all of the above information there are a good number of groups, us included, who will choose to time their Yule celebrations on or close to Hǫkunótt, often on the closest Saturday.
The primary celebration may have only lasted for three nights, but the Yule season appears to have lasted for at least two lunar months, based on both the Anglo-Saxon month names and the Old Norse month names of Ýlir (Nov-Dec) and Jólmánuðr (Dec-Jan). While Jólmánuðr, which was later renamed to Mörsugur, has an obvious connection to Jól, it should be noted that Ýlir comes from the same root etymologically. Andreas Nordberg theorizes that this time may have included a number of festivities culminating in the formal observance of Yule for those three nights around the full moon of Jólmánuðr. In 2024/2025 this Yuletide period begins with the new moon around Nov 30-Dec 2; peaks with the full moon around Jan 12-14 of 2025 and ends with the new moon around Jan 28-30.
How was it observed?
Many modern Yuletide traditions are quite similar to those found in Christmas, and the reason, often contrary to common claims, is that there is unfortunately not much information that has survived despite the importance of the festival. This has necessitated quite a bit of gap filling, and with that often comes dubious claims about supposedly "ancient" traditions. But with some digging there are some genuinely ancient traditions that can be separated out.
One tradition which seems to be present in just about every record of Yule throughout the sagas is drinking, and lots of it. In Hákonar Saga Góða it is mentioned that when King Hákon the Good moved Yule to be closer to Christmas, he also required by law that all people brew a measure of ale and not cease celebrations until it was gone. This is echoed in Haralds Saga Hárfagra where the phrase "drinking Yule" is used, and "Yule-drinking" and "Yule-ale" are both featured in Zoëga's A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic. In fact, until Puritan influences changed how Christmas is celebrated, after first banning it in several places, it was often a period with much more drinking and wild partying than it is today.
Swearing of oaths during Yuletide is mentioned in a couple of sagas, one of them being Hervarar Saga ok Heiðreks. Oaths were taken quite seriously in Old Norse culture, and oaths made at a major holy tide would carry even more weight. The tradition of a New Year's resolution may have its roots in this and/or similar customs.
Another piece of Yuletide tradition mentioned in Hervarar Saga ok Heiðreks is that of sacrificing and eating a boar. In this account, Heiðrekr leads his best boar into the palace at Yule to be sacrificed; the men there also make oaths while putting their hands on the boar's bristles, making this the second mention of oath swearing at Yule in that saga. Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar is another source that mentions a boar sacrifice at Yule, and the practice is collectively known as sónarblót with the boar being referred to as sónargǫltr. In that saga, a man named Héðinn is cursed by a troll woman when he refuses to sleep with her. The result of this is that he accidentally swears on the boar's bristles to kill his brother and steal his wife, and because of the sacredness of the oath he goes through with it while lamenting his actions the entire time. Though the element of sacrifice was taken out, boar meat at Yuletide feasts was carried over into post-conversion practice, likely carrying on in the traditional Christmas ham.
One practice that wasn't retained, though, was that of eating horse meat. In Hákonar Saga Góða, King Hákon attends a Yule sacrifice where he is forced by the locals to participate even though he is Christian. This includes not only drinking a number of times from the ritual horn, but also eating a piece of liver from a sacrificial horse. Sacrificing and eating the meat of horses appears to have been an important part of Old Norse religious practice, and the fact that laws developed post-Christianization banned eating horse meat lends even more credence to this.
Some later Yuletide traditions include:
The Julbok (Yule Goat), which can either be a large display or a small toy which is left in someone’s house as a prank and must be passed on to another. The figures are also commonly set at the base of the Christmas (or Yule) tree to await the arrival of Santa or Jultomten. This figure is reminiscent of older Yuletide customs where the Yule Goat was previously the bringer of gifts, and in some places still is. In some places, people will still wear Yule Goat masks for various Yuletide customs. Just how ancient the Yule Goat is is a subject of much discussion, but he appears to be quite old and fairly widespread, with similarities being evident in figures such as Krampus in the Alpine regions of Europe. The tradition of dressing in the guise of Krampus for events such as Krampuslauf is not unlike the wearing of Yule Goat masks and costumes further north.
The Julgran (Christmas tree) tradition began in Germany in the 1500s and was introduced into Sweden and other Nordic countries in the 1800s. However, there was already another, similar custom in Sweden that likely aided its popularity and may have pre-Christian origins: the Julstång (Yule/Christmas Pole). This is similarly a tree, but limbed up to the last cluster of branches at the top and often with the bark removed on the lower portion. The tree would be set up outside near the entrance of the house, with or without decorations hung upon it.
The Yule Log, which is decorated with holly, fir, and occasionally yew as well and then burned. For some, the burning of the log is seen as a petition to the gods for protection from misfortune. It is greatly advised that, rather than cutting down a living tree just to burn a section of it, one looks for an already fallen tree to cut the log from. The earliest solid record of a Yule log is from the a couple centuries post-conversion, but it may well be older.
In Iceland, Grýla is known as a giantess and witch who is the mother of the 13 Yule Lads (Jólasveinar) who play pranks on people during the Yule and Christmas season, but may leave gifts for those who leave out offerings for them.
Also in Iceland, Jólakötturinn is a giant cat who according to traditional folklore eats people who do not get new clothes for Christmas. So don't be sad about getting socks!
In Norway, children will sometimes go from house to house asking for treats.
In Sweden, one person in a house may dress as Tomten/Jultomte and hand out gifts.
As with the tomte in Sweden, Norway and Denmark regard the nisse as a mischievous being who plays pranks on people, but will be friendly if rice pudding is left out for him. Don't forget the pat of butter on top!
In Sweden, Lucia (13 Dec) is a major holiday and signals the beginning of Christmas celebrations. Sankta Lucia was a Christian saint who was essentially a bearer of light in darkness, and this aspect made her highly popular in a place where at this time the sun barely rises if at all. December 13th on the Julian calendar was the winter solstice, and even though the switch to the Gregorian calendar changed it to the 21st, the 13th is still often regarded as the longest and darkest night. While she was a Christian saint, there are some who theorize that she may have occupied the place of an earlier being named Lussi, especially since her candle wreath and procession through the darkness have some strong solar associations. In some older folklore she also goes to houses to make sure that the preparations for Christmas are being completed in good time, and may punish those who are lagging behind. She is sometimes even considered as a part of the Oskoreia, and like the Alpine Krampus may punish misbehaving children.
Why celebrate?
Why not? It’s the darkest time of the year, the days are getting colder and there is already a winter holiday which contains some of the same base elements anyway (at least in North America and Europe)! This is a great time to get together with friends and family and celebrate in warmth and merriment, and over the course of two lunar months there's plenty of time to get one's fill of the season. The darker aspects of the older Yuletide traditions, such as Oskoreia and the monsters of Yule, also serve as a reminder of the dangers of the cold and dark season away from civilization as well as the duality of the period itself.
All in all, this festival was regarded as the most important of them all, so if one is going to choose only one holiday to celebrate from the calendar, they would do well to make it this one!
References:
Rossel, Sven H.; Elbrönd-Bek, Bo (1996). Christmas in Scandinavia. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Hintz, Martin and Kate (1996). Christmas: Why We Celebrate It the Way We Do. Capstone.
Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer.
Snorri Sturluson (1990) translated by A.H. Smith. Heimskringla or The Lives of the Norse Kings. Mineola, NY: Dover.
Nordberg, Andreas (2006). Jul, disting och förkyrklig tidräkning: Kalendrar och kalendariska riter i det förkristna Norden. Uppsala.
Kvilhaug, Maria. The Old Norse Yule Celebration - Myth and Ritual. Freyia Völundarhúsins. 2012. http://freya.theladyofthelabyrinth.com/?page_id=397
Zoëga, Geir T (1910). A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic. London: Oxford University Press.
http://thorraborinn.tumblr.com/post/103505575458/hi-i-am-looking-for-some-help-celebrating-jul#notes.
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